These reviews of the literature are extracted from my doctoral thesis (RE
Westfall, University of Victoria, 2003). Please cite this webpage when using them.
Raspberry leaf
Stinging nettle
Partridge berry
Yellow dock
Alfalfa
Oatstraw
Dandelion
Lemon balm
Broccoli
Raspberry leaf Rubus idaeus L.
[Rosaceae]
As a pregnancy tonic, raspberry leaf is widely known, as it has a long, well-documented
history of use by pregnant women in China, Europe, and North America (Lieberman, 1995).
Steeped in boiling water, the fresh or dried leaves make a nutritionally rich, flavourful
tea that is said to nourish and tone the gravid uterus. In addition, "for centuries,
women prone to miscarriage have been urged to drink raspberry leaf tea throughout their
pregnancy to help them carry the baby to term" (Duke, 1997). This recommendation may
reflect the role of nutrition in preventing complications such as miscarriage, postpartum hemorrhage, and premature or postdate labour (Cryns, 1995;Hudson, 1999;Parsons et al.,
1999;Romm, 1997;Scott, 1998;Weed, 1986). The herb contains vitamins A, B complex, C, and E
(Lipo, 1996;Weed, 1986) as well as calcium, iron, phosphorus, and potassium (Weed, 1986).
Magnesium and manganese are also present in high levels (Pedersen, 1998;Belew, 1999) as
are selenium, tin, and aluminum (Pedersen, 1998).
The tannins, polypeptides, and flavonoids in raspberry leaves account for the herb's
astringent, stimulating, and soothing properties (Bartram, 1998;Grieve, 1971;Hobbs and
Keville, 1998). Of particular medicinal interest is an alkaloid isolated in 1941 and
identified as fragarine, an inhibitor of uterine action(Whitehouse, 1941). In the popular
literature, fragarine (also called fragine, fragrine, or fragerine) is described as toning
the uterine and pelvic muscles, thereby facilitating an easy childbirth (Bartram,
1998;Hudson, 1999;Lieberman, 1995;Romm, 1997;Weed, 1986).
The uterine stimulant and relaxant effects of raspberry leaf have been demonstrated in
laboratory animals (Whitehouse, 1941); (Burn and Withell, 1941) but have not been studied
in rigorous human trials. A recent retrospective study of raspberry leaf tea in
childbearing women found a decreased likelihood of premature or overdue labour and of
medical intervention in labour (Parsons et al., 1999). The herb is not implicated in any
childbirth complications, and no evidence of long-term toxic or teratogenic effects has
been found (McFarlin et al., 1999). Nevertheless, in view of its stimulant effect on the
uterus, the tea is sometimes recommended only in the third trimester (Bartram,
1998;Grieve, 1971;Hobbs and Keville, 1998); Whitehouse, 1941; (Balch and Balch, 1990;Burn
and Withell, 1941;McFarlin et al., 1999;Ody, 1999), although use throughout pregnancy,
often with progressively increasing dosage, has been advocated by herbalists and midwives
(Gardner, 1987;Lieberman, 1995;Romm, 1997). Brinker (1998) lists raspberry leaf as
contraindicated in women who have a history of very fast labours.
Stinging nettle Urtica dioica L. [Urticaceae]
Known worldwide as food and medicine for millennia, nettles remain popular in European and
North American herbal medicine. While some medicinal properties of the roots and shoots
have been studied fairly extensively (Blumenthal et al., 2000), use in pregnancy,
childbirth, and lactation has received little attention.
Nettle leaves as a common ingredient in herbal teas and nutritional tonics in pregnancy
appear to be specific to North America, whose First Peoples used the plant to support or
induce labour. Reports of its use as a gynaecological aid come from Cowlitz, Cree,
Kwakiutl, Lummi, Quinault, and Squaxin nations (reviewed in Blumenthal et al., 2000).
The beneficial effects derive primarily from a high nutrient content, for nettle is one of
the most nutritious herbs in common use today (Yarnell, 1998). The leaves are rich in
chlorophyll, protein, vitamins A, C, D and K, phosphorus, iron, and sulphur (Bartram,
1998;Belew, 1999;Bombardelli and Morazzoni, 1997;Lieberman, 1995;Weed, 1986) as well as
some B vitamins and appreciable amounts of magnesium (Duke, 1992). Up to 20% of the leaf
constituents are mineral salts, mainly calcium, potassium, silicon, and nitrates
(Blumenthal et al., 2000). According to one source, nettle leaf contains exceptionally
high levels of calcium: around 2900 mg per 100 g dry weight, complemented by 860 mg of
magnesium (Pedersen, 1998). Nettle extract reportedly contains all of the essential amino
acids (Bombardelli and Morazzoni, 1997).
The pharmacology of nettle is not well understood (Blumenthal et al., 2000). Germany's
Commission E noted no pharmacologic effects of the leaves (Blumenthal et al., 2000), and
the British Herbal Compendium reported mild diuretic and hemostatic properties (Bradley,
1992). Despite (or perhaps because of) the lack of evidence for medicinal qualities, the
herb is widely accepted as an effective nutritional supplement for pregnant and lactating
women and is considered completely safe and nontoxic, even in high doses (Yarnell, 1998).
However, Brinker (1998) recommends that pregnant women avoid using excessive amounts of
nettle, due to empirical evidence that the plant is an emmenagogue and abortifacient. The
herbal literature does not support this warning.
In pregnancy, the herb is primarily a therapy for anemia and malnutrition (Bartram,
1998;Belew, 1999;Burch and Sachs, 1997;Gardiner, 1992;Goldstein, 1995;Hudson, 1999;Ody,
1999). Haemostatic properties and vitamin K content make it useful in the prevention and
treatment of postpartum hemorrhage (Belew, 1999;Cryns, 1995;Gladstar, 1993;Hudson,
1999;Romm, 1997;Scott, 1998;Weed, 1986) and, in combination with dandelion root and
burdock, in the treatment of pregnancy induced hypertension (Belew, 1999). The herb also
promotes healthy kidney function (Lieberman, 1995;Romm, 1997;Weed, 1986) and reduces
varicose veins (Hudson, 1999;Romm, 1997;Weed, 1986).
Considerable experiential evidence supports the use of nettle in pregnancy (Yarnell,
1998), but clinical trials have not been conducted.
Partridge berry Mitchella repens L. [Rubiaceae]
Partridge berry's name is somewhat misleading, for it is the plant's leaves that are used
medicinally. The plant has a long history of use as a uterine tonic by North America's
First Peoples. The Cherokee have used it against menstrual pain, and to facilitate
childbirth, and it was reputedly given to pregnant cats and their kittens as well (Hamel
and Chiltoskey, 1975). Among the Delaware, it has been used as an abortifacient,
emmenagogue, and uterine tonic (Tantaquidgeon, 1942; Tantaquidgeon,1972). The Iroquois
prefer the berries (Parker, 1910) or a decoction of the plant (Herrick, 1977) to promote
easier, less painful childbirth, and the decoction is also used against leucorrhea
(Herrick, 1977). Pregnant women also use the plant to prevent rickets in their babies, and
to treat side pain (Herrick, 1977).
Partridge berry entered the materia medica of contemporary Western herbalists when it was
adopted by the Eclectic Physicians who administered it to susceptible women to prevent
miscarriage (Belew, 1999) and to prepare for labour, as its use "will often favour a
mild and speedy delivery" and is preferable to resorting to forceps (Webster, 1996).
Like raspberry leaf, partridge berry, in the form of a tea or a tincture (Bartram, 1998),
is believed to tone and nourish the uterus and is recommended throughout pregnancy to
prevent miscarriage (Belew, 1999;Duke, 1997;Romm, 1997) and as a late pregnancy tonic
(Gardner, 1987;Hudson, 1999;Romm, 1997;Weed, 1986). The herb also can be taken throughout
labour and after delivery to speed contraction of the uterus (Ody, 1999).
The pharmacologic effects of partridge berry have not been studied in a clinical setting,
and its chemical composition is largely unknown. For these reasons, some herbalists
recommend caution when the herb is used during pregnancy (Burch and Sachs, 1997).
Nevertheless, it is one of the few medicinal plants generally considered safe to ingest
throughout that time (Hobbs and Keville, 1998).
Yellow dock Rumex crispus L. [Polygonaceae]
In European folk medicine, yellow dock root is a well-known traditional laxative, liver
tonic and blood cleanser (Grieve, 1971; Pedersen, 1998). Its use as a liver tonic is
likely based on the Doctrine of Signatures, whereby yellow plants are thought to treat
live and bile conditions (Pedersen, 1998).
Yellow dock has a reputation as a remedy for iron-deficiency anemia (Weed, 1986), so it is
popular in pregnancy, a time when anemia is of some concern. While pregnant, a woman's
blood volume increases, partly through production of more blood cells and partly through
dilution. This dilution causes blood hemoglobin levels to fall (Mahomed and Hytten, 1989;
McLean, 1998) so false diagnosis of iron deficiency anemia is possible. In cases of true
(pre-existing) anemia, there is an increased risk of post-partum hemorrhage (Jonquil,
1995), so treatment by herbal means or with iron salts is often advised.
Yellow dock may not deserve its reputation as an iron tonic. On average, it contains quite
a lot of iron, 7.6 mg per 100 g dry weight according to one source (Pedersen, 1998).
However, only those plants grown in iron-rich soils will be rich in iron. Its use as an
iron tonic is based upon a tradition of growing the plant in iron-enriched soils.
[Yellow dock] roots possess the property to attract iron from the soil which is transmuted
into organic iron in the plant tissues. An older generation of herbalists sprinkled
iron-filings on soil on which they grew Yellow Dock. The plant thus became
"enriched" with the metal; extracts and tinctures made from its roots made
invaluable blood-enrichers for the treatment of simple iron-deficiency anemia. (Bartram,
1998:459).
While the roots are used medicinally, the leaves should be avoided because they contain
oxalate salts. One case of fatal poisoning by yellow dock leaves was reported in the
literature (Reig et al., 1990).
Alfalfa Medicago sativa L. [Fabaceae]
Alfalfa is most commonly used to feed cattle; it is less well known as a medicinal plant.
It has been used in European folk medicine to treat inflammation (especially arthritis),
to aid digestion, and as a blood purifier (lowering cholesterol and blood sugar levels)
and bitter tonic (Pedersen, 1998). Nutritionally, it is known to be an excellent source of
vitamins A, C, D, E, and K (Bartram, 1998;Gladstar, 1993), as well as vitamin B6, calcium,
magnesium, phosphorus, and potassium (Bartram, 1998). The plant also contains high levels
of cobalt, B-vitamins, and protein (Pedersen, 1998).
Bartram reports that alfalfa contains 20000 to 40000 units of vitamin K per 100 grams of
plant; this is likely the main reason for alfalfa's inclusion in pregnancy tonic formulas
(Bartram, 1998). Vitamin K is an important blood-clotting factor involved in preventing
post-partum hemorrhage (Weed, 1986) and hemorrhagic disease of the newborn (Sweet, 1997).
Oatstraw Avena sativa L. [Poaceae]
Oatstraw is used in pregnancy for its nutritional value; it is rich in calcium and
magnesium (Gladstar, 1993; Pedersen, 1998). It is not well known as a tonic or medicinal
herb, though Weed recommends it to strengthen capillaries and prevent varicosities (Weed,
1986), and Gladstar (1993) suggests it for calming the nerves. Oat extract and tincture
have been used as nerve and uterine tonics (Lust, 1974). There are no restrictions on the
amount of oatstraw tea a pregnant woman may use (Weed, 1986). In another book, Weed
recommends it for use as a pregnancy tonic.
Rich in bio-active minerals, Avena is an easily digested, inexpensive source of calcium
used by wise women to mend bones, build flesh, and improve circulatory and nervous system
functioning. Try Avena as your ally to nourish health/wholeness/holiness during pregnancy
and lactation. (Weed, 1989:202)
Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Weber [Asteraceae]
Dandelion is included here for its nutritional value, and dandelion root has a history of
use as a diuretic and liver tonic (Bartram, 1998;Grieve, 1971;Weed, 1989). Its Latin
species name means 'medicinal', pointing to a long history of dandelion's use in healing.
Its roots are a liver and digestive stimulant, diuretic, nutritive tonic, and sedative
(Weed, 1989). The leaves of the dandelion plant have mild medicinal properties; they are
tonic, diuretic, and a digestive bitter (Blumenthal et al., 2000;Gladstar, 1993;Weed,
1989).
The German Commission E has approved the whole plant for use as a diuretic, to stimulate
appetite, and to treat bile flow disorders and dyspepsia (Blumenthal et al., 2000). The
British Herbal Compendium gives it similar indications (Bradley, 1992). There are no known
side effects and no contraindications to its use during pregnancy and lactation
(Blumenthal et al., 2000).
Dandelion is greatly valued as a nutritive tonic. Its roots are high in iron, manganese
and phosphorus (Weed, 1989), and its leaves contain high levels of vitamin A, vitamin C,
potassium, calcium and iron (Gladstar, 1993;Weed, 1989); (Pedersen, 1998), as well as
vitamin B-complex and phosphorus (Weed, 1989). Due it its high concentration of calcium
and other micronutrients, Duke recommends it as a bone-strengthening herb (Duke, 1997).
Lemon balm Melissa spp. [Lamiaceae]
Like dandelion, lemon balm's botanical species name means 'medicinal', indicating that it
has been used in healing for centuries. Gladstar recommends lemon balm as a relaxant and
anti-flatulent (Gladstar, 1993). She attributes its digestive action to a high
concentration of essential oils. Weed calls the plant "an old favorite for
depression, melancholy and hysteria" (Weed, 1986:83). Bartram mentions these
applications, though Grieve does not (Bartram, 1998;Grieve, 1971).
Some of the medicinal properties of lemon balm have been studied fairly extensively. The
essential oil was used successfully as a treatment for agitation in people with dementia
in a controlled study (Ballard et al., 2002). The whole herb was shown to have sedative
properties, which improved 'accuracy of attention' in sufferers of Alzheimer's disease
(Kennedy et al., 2002). In vitro and in vivo studies have shown it to be an effective
topical treatment for herpes (Dimitrova et al., 1993;Koytchev et al., 1999), and
significant anti-HIV properties have been demonstrated in vitro (Yamasaki et al., 1998).
The antidepressant and anti-flatulent properties of lemon balm remain unstudied.
Broccoli Brassica oleracea L.
[Brassicaceae]
Broccoli is a powerful source of dietary calcium. Calcium and
magnesium have attracted attention in recent years as therapies for heart arrhythmias.
These minerals act synergistically in the body (Pedersen, 1998). Calcium is important for
muscle contractility and is present in blood and muscle tissues. It is an essential
nutrient for nerve function and muscle contraction (Bantam, 2000). Calcium cycling in the
heart is critical for healthy functioning (Pogwizd and Bers, 2002). However, it is
magnesium that has been shown clinically effective in treating arrhythmias (Gulker et al.,
1989).
In addition to calcium, broccoli is high in magnesium, and it contains the anti-oxidant
compounds beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A) and glutathione (Duke, 1997). It also has
compounds that reduce blood pressure and regulate thyroid functioning (Duke, 1997). The
natural health community has paid a fair bit of attention to broccoli and its close
relatives lately, as they have cancer-preventative properties (Beecher, 1994).
100 grams of broccoli provides an average of 30 mg of calcium and 20 mg of magnesium,
though there is a great deal of variation depending on where and how the broccoli was
grown (Farnham et al., 2000). According to another source, 125 ml of cooked broccoli
contains 47 mg of calcium. The same source recommends a consumption of 1000 mg a day are
recommended for pregnant and lactating women (McKinley, 2002). Broccoli provides a highly
bioavailable source of calcium, with around half the calcium in the broccoli absorbed;
this is slightly but significantly higher than the rates of calcium absorption from milk
(Heaney et al., 1993).
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